In1924 De Broglie proposed the ‘pilot waves’ theory and that eventually led to the development of the theories like ‘matter waves, electron clouds and uncertainty principle’ etc. The theory says that, electron clouds surround nucleuses of atoms in different energy levels and move at high speed about the nucleus. This clouds of electrons in the atom is used for explaining all phenomenons. For example, light emission and absorption, chemical reactions, generation of electric and magnetic fields etc. In this article we see that, wave nature of particle is not the property belong them, but it depends on the energy background that the particle exist (more details). In a lowest energy level, electrons in an atom have no any motions. Space inside of atom is not empty, but filled with space matter and most of the phenomenons in the atomic world are closely connected with the presence of space matter in atoms.     

After the Ruther Ford’s famous ‘Alpha particle-gold foil experiment’, scientists start to explore the state of electrons in atoms. Firstly they thought the electrons are “rotating” in circular orbits around the nucleus in high speed (planetary model). After understanding the instability of this model, they started to think about a series of ‘fixed energy levels’ for the “orbiting” electrons. At this time, some came up with the idea that, light exhibits the so-called ’wave- particle’ dual nature. This was the time to Louis DeBroglie’s ‘breakthrough postulate’ that, particles (electron in this cause) have wave nature along with their particle nature. Many scientists have misguided with these “dual nature” of light and particles and that eventually led to the fabrication of many ‘breathtaking’ ideas like matter waves, standing waves, electron clouds, uncertainty principle etc and all these are resulted in the development of the present atom model. The model says that, the nucleus of an atom is surrounded by a series of stationary waves. These waves have crests at certain points, each complete standing wave representing an orbit. The absolute square of the amplitude of the wave at any point at a given time is a measure of the probability that an electron will be found there. Thus, an electron can no longer be said to be at any precise point at any given time. This series of stationary waves by the electrons are used for explaining all phenomenons that generated by atoms.

In physics, the Quantum mechanics - the study of the relationship between quanta and elementary particles, is created purely based on the concept of ‘dual nature’ of particles and light. The historical background for these theories is that, the Ruther Ford’s experiment has proved that the 99.98% of the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus only and which has a diameter of only about 1/10000 of the diameter of an atom. This ‘mysterious’ huge volume of space inside of the atom out of the nucleus has compelled the scientists to find that, what makes the volume of an atom? From the belief of the ‘wave- particle duality’ of photon, the dual nature was also suggested to particles and reached in a conclusion is that, series of standing waves by the electrons cause the volume and rigidity of atoms.

Experiments that led to believe the ‘wave nature’ of particles

1)      Particle diffraction experiment

2)      Slit experiment

3)      Davisson and Germer experiment

We can see that, in all these experiments, particles are accelerated to at a great velocity. When particles are accelerated or they are getting kinetic energy, they will try to dissipate its energy and oscillate. The oscillations are caused by one or more reasons as follows- a) interactions with the space matter (charged particles make electric and magnetic field lines by the lineup of space matter units as a chain-see below), b) interactions with the surrounding particles, c) interactions with the surrounding electric or magnetic fields, d) interactions with the radiation background (from radio waves to much higher frequency waves) etc. In short, particles will exhibit wave nature when they are moving in high speed. Also, particle’s wavelength decreases with the increasing of their speed. I.e. a particle’s frequency increases with the increasing of its kinetic energy. 

A particle (charged) can be accelerated in different ways

1)      Attraction by opposite charged particles.

2)      Repulsion by same charged particles.

3)      Attraction by magnetic field.

4)      Repulsion by magnetic field.

5)      By incident photons.

6)      Radioactive nucleus can emit accelerated particles.

Today we know that, in an isolated, non-radioactive atom, there are two types of forces are exerted on its electrons.1) Attractive force from the nucleus, 2) Repulsion between the electrons (in a hydrogen atom, attractive force from the nucleus only). But, these forces cannot able to make the electrons in a consistent motion. Since there are no consistent motions for electrons in an isolated, non- radioactive atom, there is no any wave nature for electrons.

An electron can exhibit wave nature only when the electron is situated in one or more situations stated below

a) Radiation background: - In a background of radio waves to gamma rays.

b) Varying electric or magnetic field.

c) When an electron is accelerated by an electric field (attraction or repulsion).

d) When an electron is accelerated by a magnetic field (attraction or repulsion).

e) When an electron is accelerated by a radioactive nucleus (beta ray).  

Since the ‘stationary waves’ theory of electrons in the atom has proved wrong, then many questions emerge

a)      What prevents the electrons from falling into the nucleus?

b)      What makes the volume of an atom?

c)      What makes the rigidity of an atom?

d)      How an atom emits or absorbs light?

e)     How atoms bond together to make molecules? Etc.

Since there is no angular momentum (and so, no centrifugal force) for electrons, there must be a force that prevents the electrons from falling into the positive charged nucleus.

Refraction when light passes from one medium to another medium (i.e. the slowdown of velocity, when light enters to a medium), pair production of one electron and one positron when an energetic gamma ray photon is passed through near a heavy atomic nucleus, elastic nature of atoms, slight mass gain in endothermic chemical reactions and slight mass lose in exothermic chemical reactions etc suggest that, the space inside of an atom is not empty, but filled with a form of matter. I call this matter “space matter”. (A method for detecting space matter that released in an exothermic chemical reaction is explained below. See the ‘space matter’ section). Releasing of energy in a nuclear reaction is due to the rapid-huge increasing of volume of ordinary matter to space matter (see ‘nuclear energy’ below). Space matter is filled everywhere in the universe. Since the gravitational pull that exerted on space matter, all massive bodies have a denser medium of space matter envelope. Starlight bending and Lensing effect are the evidences for the denser medium of space matter that surround massive bodies (see below).

Conventionally we know that, there are two types of forces that are acting on the electrons in multi-electron atoms (i.e. above hydrogen atom). They are, 1) attractive force from the nucleus, 2) Repulsive forces between electrons (electrons within a shell and electrons from inner and outer shells). But we see above that, there is an additional force that exerted on electrons, which keeps the electrons from falling into the nucleus. That force is the buoyant force that exerted by space matter.

So, there are three factors that determine the electron configuration in a multi-electron atom, they are,

a) Attractive force from the nucleus, b) Repulsive forces between electrons, c) Buoyant force exerted on the electrons by space matter.

We know that, every element has its own unique set of spectrum lines (emission or absorption). Since the emission lines from the atom of an element are unique, we can consider an atom of an element consists of a unique- series of natural frequencies for its electrons. The shortest wavelength radiation that one atom can emit increases with the increasing of its atomic mass. I.e. the natural frequency of the innermost electrons of an atom increases with the increasing its atomic mass.

From Wien's law, we see that a very cold object with a temperature of only a few Kelvins emits primarily microwaves. An object at "room temperature" (about 295K) emits primarily Infrared radiation. And an object with a temperature of a few thousand Kelvins emits mostly visible light. An object with a temperature of a few million Kelvins emits most of its radiation in the X-ray wavelengths.

From this, we can see that, as the temperature increases, an atom’s more and more inner electrons will be excited and emit higher and higher frequency radiations.

When a low-pressure hydrogen gas is excited in a discharge tube, the hydrogen atoms generate a set of spectrum lines. Since the hydrogen atom has only one electron, the shortest wavelength radiation that the hydrogen emits will be the natural frequency of electron shell of the hydrogen atom.

Because of hydrogen has only one electron; unlike other multi-electron atoms, the electron configuration in the hydrogen atom is determined by only two factors. They are 1) attractive force from the nucleus and 2) buoyant force by the space matter. We can see that, in hydrogen atom and helium atom, the buoyant force is the only force that keeps the electron (‘electrons’ in helium) from falling into the nucleus (in a multi-electron atom above of the helium, after the electrons in the innermost shell, the buoyancy and the repulsion from electrons in inner shell(s), both play equal roles for preventing the electrons from falling into the nucleus). 

From this we can conclude that, a) the density of space matter is greater at the near surface of the nucleus of an atom and it decreases with the increasing of the distance from the nucleus, b), the natural frequency of the innermost electron shell of an atom will be greater and it decreases with the increasing of distance from the nucleus, and c) the radius of an atom is greater than the radius of the outermost electron shell of that atom.

By observing the spectrum lines that generated by hydrogen atoms in a discharge lamp, we can find a wide range of shorter and longer wavelength radiations. From the above, we understood that the natural frequency of the electron shell of hydrogen atom is the shortest wavelength Lyman series. Then how a hydrogen atom can emit this wide range of frequencies? From this we can be reached in a conclusion is that, an atom has an enormous number of ‘transitory shells’ along with their electron shells. We see above that the density of space matter is grater in near surface of the nucleus and it decreases with the increasing of distance from the nucleus and also, the natural frequency decreases with the increasing of the distance from the nucleus.

So, it is clear that, when an atomic electron is excited, it will oscillate in the natural frequency of its shell and emits a photon in that frequency. Since the density of space matter is greater in the inner region of the atom, for every oscillation towards the direction of the nucleus, the high-density space matter in the inner region of the atom expels the electron to an outer low-density space matter region. 

How the space matter shells are formed?

We can see that, the line spectrums of isotopes of same element are slightly different. Since the isotopes of same element have same number of protons, we can conclude that the electric charge of the nucleus plays no role in the development of space matter shells. So, the other possible force is the strong force. 

Space matter is filled everywhere in the universe. Since every particle is sinked (dipped) in space matter, the distance from the nuclear particles in an atom to its surrounding space matter units (individual units of space matter) is sufficiently close for transmitting the strong force (it is noted that, the strong force has only a range of 10^-15m). The strong force is transmitted through the space matter in a very inefficient way. That is, after passing through a critical amount of space matter in outward direction from the nucleus, it will become to zero. This zero point determines the radius of an atom. The quantity of space matter that surrounds a nucleus is determined by its mass. That is, a heavy nucleus can hold a greater amount of space matter than a low mass nucleus and so the quantity of space matter in a heavy atom is greater than a low mass atom. Also, since there are no appreciable volume differences between atoms of different elements, the average space matter density in an atom increases with the increasing of the mass of its nucleus.

Facts behind the natural frequencies for shells

Since the incredibly constant density and elasticity of space matter at every fixed distance from the center of the nucleus of an atom (that is, each of the space matter regions that with a precise radius from the center of the nucleus), each of those regions of space matter acts as resonant columns with unique natural frequencies. As the density of space matter decreases with the increasing of the distance from nucleus, each of the different space matter density regions can be consider as shells. An atom consists of an enormous number of space matter shells with each of they are having their own unique natural frequencies. The space matter density and natural frequency of the innermost shell will be greater than all other outer shells and it lowers with the increasing of the distance from the nucleus.

State of electrons in an atom

Normally, all atoms in the nature are situated in one or more energy backgrounds and the electrons in atoms are influenced by those energy backgrounds. For example, incident photons, varying - electric field / magnetic field, collisions of energetic particles with atoms, collisions between atoms etc. When low energy background influences outermost electrons of atoms, a high-energy background influences both the inner and outer electrons. Radiations by an atom (from micro waves to X-rays) are the direct indication for which of the electrons are excited. That is, if an atom emits only microwave frequencies, then we can conclude that only outermost electrons of that atom are excited and the all-inner electrons are perfectly stationary. But, when an atom emits more and more higher frequencies, we can understand that the atom's more and more inner electrons are excited as well as its outer electrons.

Mode of oscillation of electrons in atoms

There are two types of oscillations for atomic electrons.

a)      Horizontal oscillations (light reflecting): When the binding energy (to the nucleus) of an electron is greater than the energy of an incident photon, the electron will make horizontal oscillations (about the nucleus) and the light will be reflected. For example, the reflection of microwaves, light etc when they fall of atomic electrons.

b)      Vertical oscillations (light emitting): If the background energy is greater than that of the binding energy of electrons, the electrons make vertical oscillations (about the nucleus) and light will be emitted. For example, all types of the excitation of atoms (collision of high energy particles on atoms, when high energy photons fall on inner electrons - secondary radiations, Compton effect etc, exothermic reactions, electric resistance of materials etc).

Exploring the line spectrum of hydrogen

When the electron shell of a hydrogen atom is excited it will oscillate in its natural frequency, and so the electron present in the shell. This oscillation of the electron causes the emission of the shortest wavelength- Lyman series photon (because, that frequency is the natural frequency of the electron shell of hydrogen atom) and jumps from the shell to an outer transitory shell. If there is no any further excitation for the atom, the electron will instantaneously fall back to its shell. Also, this fall into the shell can cause, the shell get excited in a nominal fashion and the emission of a low intensity photon in the natural frequency of the shell (additionally, this oscillation of the electron can cause, it to jump to a nearer outer transitory shell. If an energetic electron from an external source simultaneously excites this transitory shell, the electron will emit a Lyman series photon in a long wavelength).      

But, if the transitory shell (to which the electron has initially jumped) is simultaneously excited by some ways (for example, collision of an energetic electron from an external source --in a discharge tube-or collision between atoms), the electron will again get excited and emit a photon with a longer wavelength, in the natural frequency of that transitory shell. Also, this excitation of the electron will cause a further jumping to a more outer transitory shell, and these processes can be continued until the electron is expelled out from the atom and to turn the atom into plasma of hydrogen at a very high temperature.   

For every jumping of the electron to a more and more outer transitory shells, and the excitations of that transitory shells can cause the emission of more and more long wavelength photons, and this is the reason for the emission of more long wavelength photons like Balmer series, Paschen series, Brackett series, Pfund series etc.     

Elasticity of atoms and heat transfer

Atoms are highly elastic. The outer shells of atoms have high elasticity because of they have low density of space matter in it. The elasticity of shells gradually decreases, as they close to the nucleus.

There are many examples for the elastic nature of atoms.

a) The random motions of gas atoms and collision between them, b) The random motions of molecules in a liquid, c) Vibrations of atoms in solid materials and heat transfer etc all are evidences for the elastic nature of atoms. Atoms of lighter elements have more elasticity than atoms of heavy elements. For example, gas atoms move in incredibly high speed and bounce when they collide with other gas atoms or its container.